![]() ![]() Below we address the roles of IL-1 family cytokines in innate and adaptive immunity and their effects on activation of antigen-presenting cells and induction of T cell-mediated immunity. Until now, adjuvants have been empirically developed, but as inadequate adjuvant selection may lead to vaccine failure even with a promising antigen, it is important that we understand the adjuvants’ modes of action (MOA) to select the most suitable candidate according to the type of response required. Three other adjuvant candidates in clinical development IC31, CAF01 and GLA-SE also induce strong T-cell responses in humans. Among the newly licensed adjuvants, only AS01E has been shown to elicit protective Th1 cell-mediated immunity. Since the 1990s, few new adjuvants have been licensed for human use. However, protection against diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, HIV, dengue and cancer also requires potent cell-mediated immunity (CMI) including Th1, Th17 and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). Alum drives T helper 2 (Th2) and potent humoral responses sufficient to tackle pathogens with a stable antigen repertoire and their secreted toxins by promoting the generation of neutralising antibodies. Hence in this review term alum generally refers to alum-containing adjuvants. Although the term alum strictly corresponds to potassium aluminum sulfate, the literature has adopted it to generally refer to most aluminium-containing adjuvants including aluminum hydroxide and aluminum phosphate. For 70 years, aluminium salts remained the only approved adjuvant for human use. Adjuvants became essential components of subunit formulations to enhance immunogenicity and boost subunit-vaccine efficacy.Īdjuvants influence the type, quality and breadth of the immune response. Recombinant antigen production led to a shift towards well-defined subunit formulations which are less reactogenic but also less immunogenic. Traditional vaccines consist of attenuated or inactivated pathogens that provide antigen arrays combined with microbe-associated molecular patterns (MAMPs) that act as natural enhancers of immunity. Vaccination is one of the most successful and cost-effective medical interventions, having eradicated or nearly eradicated diseases such as smallpox, rubella and poliomyelitis. Introduction Vaccine adjuvants: current status and future challenges
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